Communication

Introduction to Communication

The word communication has been derived from Latin ward “communis” which means common. Thus communication means sharing of ideas is common. It can be defined as exchange of facts, ideas, opinions or emotions between two or more persons to create a common ground of understanding. Communication is the process of passing information & message from one person to another. It involves at least two persons i.e. a sender & a receiver. The sender develops & transmits a message to the receiver. The purpose is to achieve common understanding between the sender & the receiver. The basic unit of communication in an organisation is the link between manager & subordinator. Managers communicate to their subordinates & receive messages from them. To be effective as a manager, you need to be an effective communicator.

Communication is a two-way process in which participants not only exchange ideas, feelings and information but also create and share meaning for reaching mutual understanding. It is the exchange of ideas, thoughts, messages, or the like, by speech, signals or writing. It is to express oneself in such a way that one is readily and clearly understood. It is a process of conveying information from the sender to the receiver with the use of the media in which the communicated information is understood.

Communication is the expression or exchange of information by speech, writing, gestures, conduct or electronic medium. It is a process of passing information, ideas, facts, or opinions between two or more parties. It is the process by which an idea is brought to another’s perception. The information that is so expressed or exchanged is also referred to as communication. It is a complex and dynamic process that allows organisms to exchange information by several methods.

To quote a few, select definitions on communication:

• US ARMY: “Communication is the exchange and flow of information and ideas from one person to another; it involves a sender transmitting an idea, information, or feeling to a ”

• William Rice-Johnson: "A communication takes place when one individual, a sender, displays, transmits or otherwise directs a set of symbols to another individual, a receiver, with the aim of changing something, either something the receiver is doing (or not doing) or changing his or her world view. This set of symbols is typically described as a "

• Pranav Mistry: "Effective communication occurs only if the receiver understands the exact information or idea that the sender intended to Many of the
• problems that occur in an organization are the either the direct result of people failing to communicate and/or processes, which leads to confusion and can cause good plans to "

• Peter Drucker; "The most important thing in communication is hearing what isn't "

• Conrad & Poole: “Communication is the process by which people interactively create, sustain and manage meaning”

This broad definition of communication includes body-language, skills of speaking and writing. It outlines the objectives of communication. It emphasizes listening as an important aspect of communication.

Objective of Communication

The objective of communication is to motivate, inform, suggest, warn, order, change behaviour and establish better relations with others.

COMPONENTS OF COMMUNICATION

Communication comprises of 8 major components, which are the objects of study of Communication Theory. These are interdependent and are considered as basic elements of any communication process. They include:

• Source - which "produces a message or sequence of messages to be communicated to the receiving terminal."

• Sender - refers to transmitter, which "operates on the message in some way to produce a signal suitable for transmission over the channel. Aristotle uses the term speaker (orator)’’ to refer to this component.

• Channel is "merely the medium used to transmit the signal from transmitter to receiver’’.

• Receiver - “performs the inverse operation of that done by the transmitter, reconstructing the message from the signal."

• Destination is “the person (or thing) for whom the message is intended".

• Message is derived from Latin word mittere, meaning "to send". It refers to a concept, information, communication or statement that is sent in an oral/graphic/written/audio/visual/audio-visual form to the

• Feedback is the loop of making a two-way communication process related to the response to the It is simply the reaction of the Destination back to the Source, direct and/or indirect.

• Context is considered as a very significant component as it decides the given communication process and fixes all the above said 7 components. It refers to the background and the environment – immediate and Space and time play a larger role of a given communication. A good communication means different things to different (or even same) people at different times.

Three other elements associated with the process of communication are: Entropy, Redundancy and Noise. Entropy is a measure of the amount of uncertainty in the message/content. Redundancy either knowingly or unknowingly enters the communication process. If deliberate, it serves the purpose of reiterating the message; otherwise repetitiveness is undesired element. Noise is actually anything irrelevant, unwarranted, undesired and hence, a disturbance/interference to effective transmission. Noise is anything that disrupts or interferes with the effective communication process. Noise can be physical, psychological or semantic and can disturb the communication process at any point; noise may be associated with any element in the system:

• Physical noise or external noise are environmental distractions such as startling sounds, appearances of things, music playing somewhere else, and someone talking really loudly near you, etc;

• Physiological noise are biological influences that distract one from effectively communicating; these could include sweaty palms, pounding heart, butterfly in the stomach, induced by speech anxiety, or feeling sick, exhausted at work, the ringing noise in your ear, being really hungry, and if you have a runny nose or a

• Psychological noise are the preconceived bias and assumptions such as thinking someone who speaks like a valley girl is dumb, or someone from a foreign country can’t speak English well so you speak loudly and slowly to

• Semantic noise is word choices that are confusing and may have the effect of distorting the

COMMUNICATION THEORIES

The term ‘theory’ is often intimidating to students. Theories provide an abstract understanding of a process, Miller says. It is simply a summary of a process. Hoover (1984) defines it as “a set of inter-related propositions that suggest why events occur in the manner that they do”. Foss, Foss and Griffin (1999) defines theory as, “a way of framing an experience or event—an effort to understand and account for something and the way it functions in the world”. Any thoughts or ideas about how things work in the world or one’s life are personal theories. Theories are essentially frameworks for how the world works, and therefore guide how to function in the world. Theory is an idea of how something happens. It is an attempt to explain or represent an experience. The term communication theory may refer to a single theory or an entire set of theories related to communication. “Theories are not just things to be read and learned. They are constantly evolving works.” (Littlejohn, 2002, p. 25)

In a field like Communication, theories are important to understand because they directly impact our daily lives. The first function communication theories serve is that they help us organize and understand our communication experiences. A second function is that they help us choose what communicative behaviours to study. A third function is that they help us broaden our understanding of human communication. And the fourth function is that they help us predict and control our communication. A fifth function of theories is that they help us challenge current social and cultural realities and provide new ways of thinking and living. While theories serve many useful functions, these functions do not really matter if we do not have well-developed theories that provide a good representation of how our world works. Littlejohn considers a communication theory to be "any conceptual representation or explanation of the communication process"

EVOLUTION

Communication theory is the discipline that studies the principles of transmitting information and the methods by which it is delivered (as print or radio or television, etc.). It is an attempt to explain how and why humans communicate meaningfully with each other. Such theories can originate from a variety of different fields, including Psychology, Biology, and Philosophy, though the actual study of the nature of communication is a field in itself. At its core, a communication theory is generally devoted to providing an explanation of how, exactly, one

individual is able to communicate meaning to another and the degree to which the speaker and the listener can understand each other. Other theories are more focused on the historical and ritual significance of communication as an essential element of culture. Such theories may focus on the broad cultural effects of communication instead of the specific process of transmitting meaning.

• Theories
• Rhetorical
• Semiotic
• Phenomenological
• Cybernetic
• Socio-cultural
• Critical

RHETORICAL THEORY

Rhetorical theory is said to have begun on the Island of Sicily when a dictator was overthrown, leaving landowners to argue in court over who rightfully owned the land - the original owners or those who had been given the land during the tyrant's regime? Under the Greek legal system of the time, individuals had to present their own cases in court - creating the need for individuals to become adept at the art of rhetoric. Cora can be credited with the first formal rhetorical theory wherein he highlighted the importance of probability to rhetoric; a speaker should argue from general probabilities or create a probable connection or basis for belief when actual facts cannot be established. Rhetorical theories address what makes public, personal diaries as rhetoric, and television, the Internet, and Web sites as rhetorical artefacts. For some rhetorical theorists, all human symbol use is inherently persuasive - no matter what our intent, anything we say or write, whether intentional or not, affects those around us.

SEMIOTIC THEORY

John Locke (1690) introduced the term ‘semiotics into the English language as a synonym for “doctrine of signs”. There already existed in Locke’s time “semeiotics”, to name that branch of medical science concerned with the study of symptoms of disease or σημεια - ‘natural signs’ in today’s language. Semiotics is the science of communication and sign systems, of the ways people understand phenomena and organize them mentally, and of the ways in which they devise means for transmitting that understanding and for sharing it with others.

PHENOMENOLOGICAL THEORY

Phenomenological theorists emphasize that each person actively constructs her or his own world. According to the Phenomenological approach to personality, the specific ways each person perceives and interprets the world make up personality and guide one’s behaviour. People's view of reality/perspective is important in guiding their behaviour and is shaped by learned expectations. These expectations form personal constructs which are generalized ways of anticipating the world and which becomes phenomenological. So, the way the person

communicates with others allows him to be unique and thus he or she creates a new phenomenological aspect of communication.

CYBERNETIC THEORY

In 1948, Norbert Wiener coined the term "cybernetics" to elaborate on the existing theory of the transmission of messages by incorporating his idea that people send messages within a system in an effort to control their surrounding environment (Wiener, 1954). The basic function of communication, which Wiener defines in his theory as the processing of information, is to control the environment in which one lives. This idea suggests that the goal of human communication is to become familiarized with a certain environment while simultaneously influencing aspects of it. So, people basically use the (digital communication through machines, social networks and artificial intelligences) cybernetic communication to create a world of his own which he controls.

SOCIO-CULTURAL THEORY

Socio-cultural theory looks at the contributions that society makes to individual development. This theory stresses the interaction between developing people and the culture in which they live. Lev Vygotsky believed that parents, caregivers, peers and the culture were largely responsible for the development of higher order functions, as to how communication functions. Socio-cultural theory focuses not only on how adults and peers influence individual learning, but also on how cultural beliefs and attitudes impact how instruction and learning take place. The purpose of communication is to develop the socio-cultural relation with the individual.

CRITICAL THEORY

Critical theory is a social theory oriented toward critiquing and changing society as a whole, in contrast to traditional theory oriented only to understanding or explaining it. This theory questions and challenges the conviction that what is, or what is in the process of becoming, or what appears to be, or what is most commonly understood to be, or what is dominantly conveyed to be, is also at the same time right and true, good and just, and necessary and inevitable: critical theory does not, at least not automatically, accept any of this. Critical theory is always particularly concerned with inquiring into the problems and limitations, the mistakes, the contradictions and incoherence, the injustices and inequities in how human beings operate within particular kinds of structures and hierarchies of relations with each other, facilitated and regulated by particular kinds of institutions, engaged in particular kinds of processes and practices, have formed, reformed, and transformed ourselves, each other, and the communities, cultures, societies, and world in which we live.

Language of Communication

Communication is very important function to build and manage all human relations. The word means nothing for us without communication. In other words, communications makes and shapes our world and perceptions about it. Through various types, forms and means of

communication we make meaning of the world. Communication is also a tool of socializing ourselves in the society where we inhabit. Since the birth of humans n this planet, communication has been evolving. In the earlier times people used different techniques and forms of communication. But as times evolved, it was shaped and reshaped. In the modern times communication has taken entirely a new dimension with technology, social media and various modern means. However, communication and its purpose remain universal. It universally allows us to build relations and express our thoughts, emotions, feelings, mood and desire.

1. Various Types of Communication

1. Intrapersonal communication,
2. Interpersonal communication,
3. Interpretive communication
4. Group communication
5. Mass communication
6. Presentational communication

1. Intrapersonal Communication

Intrapersonal communication is also known as self-talk or thinking, and refers to the ways we communicate with ourselves. We use intrapersonal communication to plan our lives, rehearse scenarios before we act them out, and tell ourselves what to do or not do. The way we communicate with ourselves greatly affects our self-esteem. A person who tells himself, "I'm so stupid" when he fails an exam will likely have poorer self-esteem than someone who thinks, "I did really well on the previous four exams. I must have just been having an off day, and I'll do better next time."

2. Interpersonal Communication

In simple terms, interpersonal communication is the communication between one person and another (or others). It is often referred to as face-to-face communication between two (or more) people. Both verbal and nonverbal communication, or body language, play a part in how one person understands another. An interview, a conversation, and intimate communications come under this interpersonal communication. It is more persuasive and influential than any other type of communication. For it involves the interplay of words, gestures, the warmth of human closeness and in fact all the five senses.

3. Interpretive communication

It is a one way communication with no alternative to the active negotiation of meaning with the writer, speaker, or producer. Here, the reader, listener or viewer interprets with the author, speaker or producer who wants the receiver of the message to understand it. It implies the ability to read, listen or view between the lines. Interpretive communication is done through reading or listening of authentic texts and viewing authentic materials.

4. Group Communication

Group communication shares all these above qualities, though in a much less measure. The larger the group the less personal and intimate is the possibility of exchange. In fact, as the group grows in size communication tends to become more and more of monologue, for participation becomes problematic. The degree of directness and intimacy therefore depends on the size of the group, the place where it meets, as also the relationship of the members of the group to one another, and to the group leader who monitors the communication. Group communication requires leadership, equal sharing of ideas, peer pressure, roles and norms, and focus on a common goal.

5. Mass Communication

It is process of sending a message through channel of communication to a large group of audiences and organizations. It involves a professional communicator who uses mechanical media to spread messages widely, rapidly ad continuously to arouse intended meanings in the audience and influence him or her in a variety of ways.

6. Presentational communication

It is one way communication intended for an audience of readers, listeners or viewers. It presents information but not target exchange it. No direct opportunity for the active negotiation of meaning exists in this mode of communication. Here the presenter or communicator needs to know the language and culture of the target audience. This mode of communication is done through writing articles, advertisement, brochures, and reports. Power point presentation etc and telling a story.

2. Modes of Communication

I. Verbal Communication

Verbal communication refers to the form of communication in which message is transmitted verbally; communication is done by word of mouth and a piece of writing. Objective of every communication is to have people understand what we are trying to convey. In verbal communication remember the acronym KISS(keep it short and simple).

When we talk to others, we assume that others understand what we are saying because we know what we are saying. But this is not the case. Usually people bring their own attitude, perception, emotions and thoughts about the topic and hence creates barrier in delivering the right meaning.

So in order to deliver the right message, you must put yourself on the other side of the table and think from your receiver’s point of view. Would he understand the message? How it would sound on the other side of the table?

Verbal Communication is further divided into:

A. Oral Communication

In oral communication, spoken words are used. It includes face-to-face conversations, speech, telephonic conversation, video, radio, television, voice over internet. In oral communication, communication is influence by pitch, volume, speed and clarity of speaking.

B. Written Communication

In written communication, written signs or symbols are used to communicate. A written message may be printed or hand written. In written communication message can be transmitted via email, letter, report, memo etc. Message, in written communication, is influenced by the vocabulary & grammar used, writing style, precision and clarity of the language used.

Written Communication is most common form of communication being used in business. So, it is considered core among business skills.

Memos, reports, bulletins, job descriptions, employee manuals, and electronic mail are the types of written communication used for internal communication. For communicating with external environment in writing, electronic mail, Internet Web sites, letters, proposals, telegrams, faxes, postcards, contracts, advertisements, brochures, and news releases are used.

II. Non-verbal Communication

When we communicate using gesture or facial expression, it is called non-verbal communication. The popular statement ‘action speaks more than words’ holds true when it comes to understanding the essence of non-verbal communication. It is the way through which we communicate our feelings, emotions, and attitudes.

In body language there are two types of gestures

• I. Single gesture
• II. Cluster gesture

Single gesture such as nod of head from left to right is enough to express one`s disagreement. This gesture is equivalent to one single word; hence it is called single gesture. Cluster gesture such as standing, talking and using eye contact are equivalent to meaningful arrangement of words in sentence. While communicating using verbal mode we have to choose appropriate words and arrange them grammatically to get a meaningful sentence. I the same way in non verbal communication one has to choose one`s gesture and poster correctly. `Just an angry face of a teacher may not encourage students to ask questions. However, there is no water light compartment between verbal and non-verbal communication. In real life both of these complement each other. Different types of non-verbal communications are mentioned below

• Kinesics – it refers to the different ways of in which a person moves his bodies such as posters, gestures and leg
• Paralinguistics – it refers to the pitch variation of speaker`s voice. It shows how the words are spoken or A simple phrase ‘come here’ can be said with emphasis in an authoritative manner.
• Proxemics – use of special language in face to face communication is known as It reveals a particular facet of a personality. In a college or workplace use of space is an indicator of power and superiority. For example, when a student is talking to a professor the distance between him and the professor is more than when he is talking to his fellow friends.
• Chronemics - in today`s fast moving world time is often considered as money. However, unlike other non-verbal communication it is very culture specific People from low- context culture have precise sense of time keeping compared to high-context culture countries including. Time in India is very flexible.
• Haptics - human being not only communicates through words and gestures but also conveys feelings through the language of touch. Tactilities is the science of touch

There are two types of touch language:

1. Bodily contact
2. Touching with hands
• Occulies - Facial gestures and the eyes are the most powerful medium of communication we poses after words. Eyes are often called to be the windows to our soul and mirror of our heart. Some of the eye contacts are staring eyes, vague eyes, scarcely looking eyes.
• Artefacts - The message that is conveyed through one`s appearance, clothing, and objects are considered as artefacts. These forms are part of personality. Very often a person develops a habit of using a particular brand, alter people often associate that with the specific person only. In an interview process it is said that the first thirty seconds are very crucial for making an impression in the interviewer’s mind. In other words, the appearance conveys a meaningful message to

Thus, nonverbal communication is the sending or receiving of wordless messages. We can say that communication other than oral and written, such as gesture, body language, posture, tone of voice or facial expressions, is called nonverbal communication. Nonverbal communication is all about the body language of speaker.

Nonverbal communication helps receiver in interpreting the message received. Often, nonverbal signals reflect the situation more accurately than verbal messages. Sometimes nonverbal response contradicts verbal communication and hence affects the effectiveness of message.

Nonverbal communication has the following three elements:

Appearance

Speaker: clothing, hairstyle, neatness, use of cosmetics Surrounding: room size, lighting, decorations, furnishings Body Language

facial expressions, gestures, postures Sounds

Voice Tone, Volume, Speech rate

3. Types of Communication Based on Purpose and Style

The communication functions as the means by which the activities in the organisation are coordinated to achieve the organisational goals. It is also the means by the behaviour is modified, change is effected, information is made productive & goals are achieved. Whether it is with a business enterprise, a family, educational institution or trade exhibition, the transfer of information from individual to another is absolutely essential.

There are two main types of communication in every organisation – formal & informal communication.

1. Formal Communication

Formal communication refers to official communication which takes place through a chain of commands. It flows in formally established channels & is concerned with work related matters. Members of the enterprise and expected to communication with one another strictly as per channels laid down in the structure. The formal communication may be divided into three categories which are given as follows:

A. Downward Communication:

Under this system, the flow of communication from the top management downward is to be operating level. It may also be called a communication from a superior to a subordinate. It follows the line of authority from the top to the bottom of the organisation hierarchy. Downward communication consists of plans & policies, orders and instructions, procedures & rules etc.

B. Upward Communication:

It means the flow of information from the lower levels of the organisation to the higher level of authority. It passes from subordinate to superior as that from worker to foreman, foreman to manager. From manager to general manager & so on. This communication includes opinions, ideas, suggestions, complaints, grievances, appeals, reports etc. It is very important as it serves as the feedback on the effectiveness of downward communication. Management is able to know how well its policies, plans & objectives are followed by those working at lower levels of the organisation. It keeps the management informed about the progress of the work & difficulties faced in performance. On the basis of upward communication, the management revises its plans & policies & makes further planning.

C. Horizontal Communication:

The transmission of information and understanding between people on the same level of organisation hierarchy is called the horizontal communication. This type of communication is also known as lateral or sideward or crosswise communication. Usually, it pertains to inter departmental managers working at the same level of organisation or among subordinates working under one boss. Horizontal communication speeds up information and promotes mutual understanding. It enables the managers working at the same level to exchange information and co-ordinate their activities without referring all matters to the higher level of management. The horizontal communication is generally of an informal nature. Whenever a departmental head requires some information from another departmental head, he tends to contact him directly. However, this type of communication can be oral or written.

2. Informal Communication

There is also a great deal of informal communication in an organisation. This communication flows through informal channels and may or may not be work related. Informal communication cuts through the formal organisational structure. Most of us are familiar with the term ‘grapevine’ used to describe a network of informal communication. Grapevines are present in all organisations. In fact, in large organisations, there are many grapevines moving up, down and across departments. Grapevines flourish because communication is a natural human tendency. People who know each other in the organisation talk together informally. One thing they have in common is the organisation they work for, so they talk about the happenings in the organisation. Grapevines carry two types of information :work related and people related. Employees want to know what is going on in the organisation. When they are not kept informed through formal channels, they seek information from the grapevine. Likewise, they are curious about the people they work with. Grapevine carry the type of personnel information not generally communicated through formal channels. Employees get to know plans, promotions, punishments, etc, much before they are formally announced. Informality however, reduces uniformity of communication and sometimes false or distorted news is circulated.

Some employees consider the grapevine their main source of information. It is fast- they get information quickly and more information is given than is normally included in formal downward communications, which are often written and may originate from someone they do not know personally. Manager often become frustrated with grapevines, particularly when they carry incorrect information. But grapevines exist; managers cannot stop them. Managers can, however, increase the accuracy of the grapevine by feeding it correct information. And they can try to reduce the relevance placed on grapevines by making certain that formal communication is complete and timely.

4. Use of Communication in Personal, Social and Business Purposes

Communication is a broad concept of human interaction. Since immemorial communication has been playing the vital role in bringing people together and in allowing them to co inhabit in same or in different places. But in the modern times communication has far reaching impact on human beings. It is used for various purposes and in various ways. Different people and different group or organizations extensively use communication for their particular

purposes. Some use it for personal and social interaction. Some use it for purely business communication with particular terms and phrase.

a) Personal

Personal communications usually take the form of a conversation, a letter, or an email. They are generally unpublished and not usually acceptable as a reference. However if their content is very important in the context of your work, they may be included. It is recommended that permission be sought from the source or party to the conversation if you wish to include quotes in your text. Personal communications are cited within the text but are not included in the reference list, unless they are publicly available in an archive or repository. It's the communication between person to person. It provides necessary communication between two people making man a social animal. We have letters, e-mails, SMSs, telephone and mobile phone facilities which also include STD and ISD services. Social communication behaviours such as eye contact, facial expressions, and body language are influenced by socio-cultural and individual factors (Curenton& Justice, 2004; Inglebret, Jones, & Pavel, 2008). There is a wide range of acceptable norms within and across individuals, families, and cultures which are personal communication.

b) Social

Social communication is the use of language in social contexts. It encompasses social interaction, social cognition, pragmatics, and language processing. Social communication skills include the ability to vary speech style, take the perspective of others, understand and appropriately use the rules for verbal and nonverbal communication, and use the structural aspects of language (e.g., vocabulary, syntax, and phonology) to accomplish these goals.

Social communication, spoken language, and written language have an intricate relationship. Spoken and written language skills allow for effective communication in a variety of social contexts and for a variety of purposes.

c) Business

Business communication is used for a wide variety of activities including, but not limited to: strategic communications planning, media relations, public relations (which can include social media, broadcast and written communications, and more), brand management, reputation management, speech-writing, customer-client relations, and internal/employee communications.

Companies with limited resources may choose to engage in only a few of these activities, while larger organizations may employ a full spectrum of communications. Since it is difficult to develop such a broad range of skills, communications professionals often specialize in one or two of these areas but usually have at least a working knowledge of most of them. By far, the most important qualifications communications professionals can possess are excellent writing ability, good 'people' skills, and the capacity to think critically and strategically.

Barriers to Effective Communication

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